Unit 6: Government and politics

The policy cycle model

Introduction for teachers

The two dimensions of politics

Politics, according to Max Weber’s classic definition, has two dimensions: on the one hand, it is a quest and struggle for power, and on the other hand it is a slow and streng “boring (of) holes through thick planks, both with passion and good judgment.”¹⁵ The metaphor stands for the attempt to solve political problems. Such problems need to be dealt with, as they are both urgent and affect society as a whole, and are therefore complex and difficult.

This unit focuses on how this “boring (of) holes through thick planks” takes place, and how citizens who want to take part in democracy can play their part in deciding what problems deserve priority, and how they should best be solved.

The policy cycle model

The students learn how to use a tool to describe and understand political decision-making processes – the model of the policy cycle (see student handout 6.1). Politics is understood as a process of defining problems, and then debating, choosing and implementing solutions. Public opinion and reactions by those persons and groups whose interests are affected show whether the solutions will serve their purpose and be accepted. If the attempt to solve a problem has succeeded, the policy cycle comes to an end (policy termination); if it fails, the cycle begins anew. In some cases, a solution to one problem creates new problems that now must be dealt with in a new policy cycle.

The policy cycle model emphasises important aspects of political decision making in democratic systems:

• a heuristic (constructivist) concept of political problems and the common good;

• competitive agenda setting; in pluralist societies, political arguments are often linked to interests;

• political decision making as a process of collective learning; the absence of omniscient players (such as leaders or parties with salvation ideologies);

• a strong influence of public opinion and media coverage; the opportunity for citizens and interest groups to intervene and participate.

How the model works – what it shows, and what it omits

The policy cycle is a model – a design that works like a map in geography. It shows a lot, and delivers logic of understanding. Therefore modeis are frequently used in both education and science, because without modeis we would understand very little in our complex world.

The manual for students contains materials that are designed as models:

student handouts:

• 1.2 Three options that shape our futures;

• 3.4 How does a democratic political system handle diversity and pluralism?

• 3.5 The concept of the common good;

• 3.6 Map of social cleavages and political parties.

We never mistake a map for the landscape it stands for – a map shows a lot, but only because it omits a lot. A map that showed everything would be too complicated for anyone to understand. The same holds true for modeis such as the policy cycle. This model should also not be mistaken for reality. It focuses on the process of political decision making – “the slow boring of thick planks” -but pays less attention to the second dimension of politics, the quest and struggle for power and influence.¹⁶

In democratic systems, the two dimensions of politics are linked: political decision makers wrestle with difficult problems, and they wrestle with each other as political opponents. In the policy cycle model, the stage of agenda setting shows how both these dimensions go together. To establish one’s understanding of a political problem on the agenda is a matter of power and influence.

Here is an example. One group claims, “Taxation is too high, as it deters investors,” while the second argues, “Taxation is too low, as education and social security is underfunded.” There are interests and basic political outlooks behind each definition of the taxation problem, and the solutions implied point in opposite directions: reduce taxation for the higher income groups – or raise it. The first problem definition is neo-liberal, the second is social democrat (see student handout 3.6).

Citizens should be aware of both. The policy cycle model is a tool that helps citizens to identify and judge political decision makers’ efforts to solve society’s problems.

The learning potential in using the cycle model

The unit’s potential for competence development includes the following:

Competences of analysis and judgment:

• The students are trained to become active users of media Information.

• They develop a keener eye for debates on agenda setting, and different stages of political deci­sion making.

• The students appreciate the negotiation of compromises between different interests (heuristic concept of political problems and the common good).

Competences of political participation:

The students are able to identify the phases in a political decision-making process during which they can intervene and exercise influence (stages before and after the decision).

Didactic framework of the unit

The students are introduced to the policy cycle model as a tool, and they apply it in a research project task. In the last lesson they share and reflect on their findings and their work in the project. The first lesson provides an advance organiser that highlights a key element of the policy cycle – the issue of setting the political agenda. The students will understand the model better after having experienced the simulation of an agenda-setting debate in class. The unit allows for a high level of student activity.

The unit offers the tool to develop the analysis of political decision-making processes, but provides no case study material. This makes it possible, but also necessary, for the teacher and/or the students to select a suitable topic. Criteria for choosing a case study topic include: relevance, comprehensibility, availability of media coverage. A current case will be covered by the initial phases in the policy cycle model, but media coverage is more easily accessible. On the other hand, a case from the past also gives insight into the implementation history and the assessment of the solutions to a problem. The constitutional, legal and institutional framework should also be considered.

An optional feedback session is recommended to evaluate the learning outcome and utilise the learning potential that student feedback offers – both for students and teachers. However, a fifth lesson needs to be set aside for this.

Competence development: links to other units in this volume

What this table shows

The title of this manual, Taking part in democracy, focuses on the competences of the active citizen in democracy. This matrix shows the potential for synergy effects between the units in this manual. The matrix shows what competences are developed in unit 6 (the shaded row in the table). The strongly framed column shows the competences of political decision making and action – strongly framed because of their close links to taking part in democracy. The rows below indicate links to other units in this manual: what competences are developed in these units that support the students in unit 6?

How this matrix can be used

Teachers can use this matrix as a tool for planning their EDC/HRE classes in different ways.

• This matrix helps teachers who have only a few lessons to devote to EDC/HRE: a teacher can select only this unit and omit the others, as he/she knows that some key competences are also developed, to a certain extent, in this unit – for example, analysing a problem, judging the effect of rules, exploring the importance of personal responsibility.

• The matrix helps teachers make use of the synergy effects that help the students to be trained in important competences repeatedly, in different contexts that are linked in many ways. In this case the teacher selects and combines several units.

UNIT 6: Government and politics – The policy cycle model

How does a democratic community solve its problems?

15. Max Weber, Politik als Beruf [Politics as a vocation], Reclam: Stuttgart, 1997, p. 82. (My translation, P.K.)
16. Compare materials for teachers 6.2.